Figure 1: Biomass utilisation cycle concepts [12]
Figure 2: Schematic diagram shows methanol production [12]
Figure 3: Biogas production process [19]
Figure 4: Biomass resources from several sources are converted into a range of products for use by transport, industry and building sectors [21]
Figure 5: Organic matters before and after treatment in digester [12]
Figure 6: Potential of hydrogen sludge before and after treatment in the digester [12]
Figure 7: Advanced biomass power with diesel engine [12]
Figure 8: Biofuel pathways for renewable alcohol fuels [12]
Figure 9: Flow chart of biodiesel production [12]
Figure 10: Supply side and demand side management approach for energy [2]
Figure 11: Exergy based optimal energy model [2]

Energy source

Energy carrier

Energy end-use

Vegetation

Fuel-wood

Cooking
Water heating
Building materials
Animal fodder preparation

Oil

Kerosene

Lighting
Ignition fires

Dry cells

Dry cell batteries

Lighting
Small appliances

Muscle power

Animal power and human power

Transport
Land preparation for farming
Food preparation (threshing)

Table 1: Sources of energy [2]

Systems

Applications

Water supply

Rain collection, purification, storage and recycling

Wastes disposal

Anaerobic digestion (CH4)

Cooking

Methane

Food

Cultivate the 1 hectare plot and greenhouse for four people

Electrical demands

Wind generator

Space heating

Solar collectors

Water heating

Solar collectors and excess wind energy

Control system

Ultimately hardware

Building fabric

Integration of subsystems to cut costs

Table 2: Renewable applications [2]

Transport

e.g., small vehicles and boats

Agricultural machinery

e.g., two-wheeled tractors

Crop processing

e.g., milling

Water pumping

e.g., drinking water

Small industries

e.g., workshop equipment

Electricity generation

e.g., hospitals and schools

Domestic

e.g., cooking, heating, lighting

Table 3: Energy needs in rural area [2]

Muscle power

Man, animals

Internal combustion engines
Reciprocating

Petrol- spark ignition
Diesel- compression ignition
Humphrey water piston

Rotating
Heat engines

Gas turbines

Vapour (Rankine)
Reciprocating

Steam engine

Rotating

Steam turbine

Gas Stirling (Reciprocating)

Steam engine

Gas Brayton (Rotating)

Steam turbine

Electron gas

Thermionic, thermoelectric

Electromagnetic radiation

Photo devices

Hydraulic engines

Wheels, screws, buckets, turbines

Wind engines (wind machines)

Vertical axis, horizontal axis

Electrical/mechanical

Dynamo/alternator, motor

Table 4: Methods of energy conversion [8]

Primary source of energy

Emissions (x 103 metric tones CO2)

 

Waste (x 103 metric tones CO2)

Area (km2)

Atmosphere

Water

Coal

380

7-41

60-3000

120

Oil

70-160

3-6

Negligible

70-84

Gas

24

1

-

84

Nuclear

6

21

2600

77

Table 5: Annual GHG emissions from different types of power plants [1]

Region

Population (millions)

Energy per person (Watt)

Africa

820

0.54

Asia

3780

2.74

Central America

180

1.44

North America

335

0.34

South America

475

0.52

Western Europe

445

2.24

Eastern Europe

130

2.57

Oceania

35

0.08

Russia

330

0.29

Table 6: Energy consumption per person [1]

Construction and demolition material

Recycling technology options

Recycling product

Asphalt

Cold recycling: heat generation; Minnesota process; parallel drum process; elongated drum; microwave asphalt recycling system; finfalt; surface regeneration

Recycling asphalt; asphalt aggregate

Brick

Burn to ash, crush into aggregate

Slime burn ash; filling material; hardcore

Concrete

Crush into aggregate

Recycling aggregate; cement replacement; protection of levee; backfilling; filter

Ferrous metal

Melt; reuse directly

Recycled steel scrap

Glass

Reuse directly; grind to powder; polishing; crush into aggregate; burn to ash

Recycled window unit; glass fibre; filling material; tile; paving block; asphalt; recycled aggregate; cement replacement; manmade soil

Masonry

Crush into aggregate; heat to 900 oC to ash

Thermal insulating concrete; traditional clay

Non-ferrous metal

Melt

Recycled metal

Paper and cardboard

Purification

Recycled paper

Plastic

 

Convert to powder by cryogenic milling; clopping; crush into aggregate; burn to ash

Panel; recycled plastic; plastic lumber; recycled aggregate; landfill drainage; asphalt; manmade soil

Timber

Reuse directly; cut into aggregate; blast furnace deoxidisation; gasification or pyrolysis; chipping; moulding by pressurising timber chip under steam and water

Whole timber; furniture and kitchen utensils; lightweight recycled aggregate; source of energy; chemical production; wood-based panel; plastic lumber; geofibre; insulation board

Table 7: Summary of material recycling practices in the construction sector [1]

Region 2011

 

Biomass (Mtoe)

Conventional Energy (Mtoe)

Total (Mtoe)

Share of Biomass (%)

Africa

205

136

341

60

China

206

649

855

24

East Asia

106

316

422

25

Latin America

73

342

415

18

South Asia

235

188

423

56

Total developing countries

825

1632

2457

34

Other non-OECD * countries

24

1037

1061

2

Total non-OECD* countries

849

2669

3518

24

OECD countries

81

3044

3125

3

World

930

5713

6643

14

Region 2020

 

Biomass (Mtoe)

Conventional Energy (Mtoe)

Total (Mtoe)

Share of Biomass (%)

Africa

371

266

637

59

China

224

1524

1748

13

East Asia

118

813

931

13

Latin America

81

706

787

10

South Asia

276

523

799

35

Total developing countries

1071

3825

4896

22

Other non-OECD * countries

26

1669

1695

2

Total non-OECD* countries

1097

5494

6591

17

OECD countries

96

3872

3968

2

World

1193

9365

10558

11

*Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Table 8: Final energy projections including biomass (Mtoe) [13]

 

Plant data

System data

 

 

Existing data

Size

Peak load

Life

Load shape

Cost (fixed and variation operation and maintenance)

Capital costs

Forced outage

Fuel costs

Maintenance

Depreciation

Efficiency

Rate of return

 Fuel Emissions

Taxes

 

Future data

All of above, plus

System lead growth

Capital costs

Fuel price growth

Construction trajectory

Fuel import limits

Date in service

Inflation

Table 9: Classifications of data requirements [2]

Source

Process

Product

End use

 

 

 

 

Agricultural residues

Direct

 

Combustion

 

Rural poor
Urban household
Industrial use

Processing

 

Briquettes

 

Industrial use
Limited household use
Rural household
(self-sufficiency)

 

Processing

 

Carbonisation (small scale)

 

Urban fuel

Carbonisation

Briquettes

Energy services

Fermentation

Carbonised
Biogas

Household Industry

 

Agricultural, and animal residues

Direct

Briquettes

Carbonisation
Carbonisation
Fermentation

Combustion

Direct combustion
Carbonised
Briquettes
Biogas

(Save or less efficiency as wood)
(Similar end use devices or improved)
Use
Briquettes use
Use

Table 10: Agricultural residues routes for development [12]

Subject

Tools

Constraints

Utilisation and land clearance for agriculture expansion

Stumpage fees
Control
Extension
ConversionTechnology

Policy
Fuel-wood planning
Lack of extension
Institutional

Utilisation of agricultural residues

Briquetting
Carbonisation
Carbonisation and briquetting
Fermentation
Gasification

Capital
Pricing
Policy and legislation
Social acceptability

Table 11: Effective biomass resource utilisation [8]

Type of residue

Current use

Wood industry waste

Residues available

Vegetable crop residues

Animal feed

Food processing residue

Energy needs

Sorghum, millet, and wheat residues

Fodder, and building materials

Groundnut shells

Fodder, brick making, and direct fining oil mills

Cotton stalks

Domestic fuel considerable amounts available for short period

Sugar, bagasse, and molasses

Fodder, energy need, and ethanol production (surplus available)

Manure

Fertiliser, brick making, and plastering

Table 12: Biomass residues and current use [8]

Fuel

Calorific value (kcal)

Burning mode

Thermal efficiency (%)

Electricity, kWh

880

Hot plate

70

Coal gas, kg

4004

Standard burner

60

Biogas, m3

5373

Standard burner

60

Kerosene, l

9122

Pressure stove

50

Charcoal, kg

6930

Open stove

28

Soft coke, kg

6292

Open stove

28

Firewood, kg

3821

Open stove

17

Cow dung, kg

2092

Open stove

11

Table 13: Comparison of various fuels [19]

Feedstock

Crops

Conversion process

End product

Wood-cellulosic biomass

Short rotation forest (poplar, willow), plant species (sorghum, mischantus, etc.),

Direct combustion
Gasification
Pyrolysis

Heat
Methane
Hydrogen

Vegetable oils

Sugar/starch

Fibre-crops (cynara, kenaf, etc.)
Oleaginous crops (rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, etc.)
Cereals, root and tuber crops, grape, topinambour, etc.

Direct combustion

Esterification
Fermentation

Oil

Heat
Biodiesel
Ethanol

Table 14: Biomass conversions to energy [12]

Groups of plants

Number of species

Plants cultivated for food purposes that can be reconverted to new uses

9

Plants cultivated in the past, but not in culture any more

46

Plants cultivated in other world areas

46

Wild species, both indigenous and exotic

47

Total

148

Plant product

Number of species

Biomass

8

Sugars and polysaccharides

38

Cellulose

17

Hydrocarbons

3

Polymeric hydrocarbons

5

Gums and resins

12

Tannins and phenolic compounds

3

Waxes

7

Vegetable oils

38

Total

131

Table 15: Plant species potentially exploitable for production of agricultural biomass for energy or industrial utilizations [25]

Product

Concentration (kg/m3)

Ethanol

70-120

Organic acids (e.g., citric)

40-100

Vitamin B12

0.02

Interferon

50-70

Single-cell protein

30-50

Antibiotics (e.g., Penicillin G)

10-30

Enzyme protein (e.g., protease)

2-5

Table 16: Typical product concentrations exiting fermenters [25]

Source

Energy (J)

Exergy (J)

CQF

Water at 80 oC

100

16

0.16

Steam at 120 oC

100

24

0.24

Natural gas

100

99

0.99

Electricity/work

100

100

1.00

Table 17: Qualities of various energy sources [2]